The Julian calendar was a reform of the Roman calendar introduced by Julius Caesar in 46 BC. AD . Used in ancient Rome from 45 BC. AD He remains employed until replaced by the Gregorian calendar from the late sixteenth century and in some countries until the twentieth century. It is still used by the Berbers in the monasteries of Mount Athos and several Orthodox national churches .
Features:
General structure:
The Julian calendar is a solar calendar . It has 12 months 29, 30 or 31 days leading to a total of 365 days for a common year .
To better approximate the term the tropical year (about 365.2422 days) and thus avoid a progressive shift seasons, the Julian calendar uses a leap day every four years, the corresponding year of 366 days. On average, one year of the Julian calendar thus lasts 365.25 days.
Month:
The Julian calendar had twelve months named Januarius, februarius, Martius, Aprilis, maius, junius, quintiles (later Julius), sextile (later Augustus), september, october, november and december, like the Roman calendar earlier.
Reform Julian gave them their modern lengths. Previously, they were 29, 28, 31, 29, 31, 29, 31, 29, 29, 31, 29 and 29 days. They went to 31, 28, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, 31, 30, 31, 30 and 31. Former intercalary month of 27 days was deleted and replaced by adding an extra day in leap years februarius.
the thirteenth century Sacrobosco hypothesized that the Roman calendar month preceding alternated 30 and 29 days and the initial reform of Caesar gave 29 days and 30 to februarius sextilis, Augustus having transferred a day februarius to sextilis after renaming this month in his honor. Many sources contradict explicitly.
Years:
Identification and numbering; Various identification systems have been used for years with the Julian calendar. For the Romans, the dominant method was to name after the two consuls eponymous to taking office, which is made on 1 January since -153. The Romans sometimes used the year of the reign of the Emperor, and the late fourth century, the documents were dated by 15-year cycle of Indiction . In 537, Justinian imposed the mention of the emperor and his year reign over that of proclaiming and namesake of the consul, while allowing the use of local eras. In
309 and 310, and certain future dates, no consul was appointed. In this case, the consular date was given, indicating the number of years since the last Consul (Consular post-dating). After 541, only the emperor ruled the consulate, typically for one year, and dating postconsulaire became the norm. The system is obsolete, was formally abolished by Leo VI in 888 .
The ab Urbe condita , dating "from the founding of the city (ie Rome ), was rarely used to designate years. This method was used by Roman historians to determine the number of years between two different events and historians could use different dates.
The adoption of the Julian calendar led to several local eras, as the era of Actium or Hispanic era, and some were used during a certain time. The Era of Martyrs , also called Anno Diocletian, was used by Christians of Alexandria for their Easter date during the fourth century and the fifth century, and continues to be by the Coptic churches and Ethiopian .
In the eastern Mediterranean, the efforts of Christians such chronographs Aniene Alexandria to date the creation of the world after the Bible led to the introduction of eras of Anno Mundi based on this event . The most important is the Etos kosmou used in the Byzantine world from the tenth century and in Russia until 1700. To the west, around 527 , Dionysius the Little proposed the system of anno Domini , that is to say, "year of the Lord," which has gradually spread throughout the Christian world: the years were numbered from the supposed date of embodiment or the announcement of Christ on March 25 year a (either in the ab Urbe condita 753).
Year's Day
year consular Roman calendar began on 1 January since 153 BC . BC and this point was not changed by the reform julienne (other types of years could start another day, as the religious year traditional or year). In contrast, local calendars aligned with the Julian calendar could keep a date from different year. In Egypt, the Alexandrian calendar began August 29 (August 30 after a leap year). Multiple calendars in local provincial fielded on the anniversary of Augustus, September 23. The Indiction provoked the adoption of September 1 as the beginning of the year in the Byzantine Empire and this date is always used in the Orthodox Church for the beginning of the liturgical year . When Vladimir I of Kiev adopted the Julian calendar 988, the year was numbered Anno Mundi 6496 and commenced on 1 March, six months after the start of Anno Mundi Byzantine same number. In 1492 (Anno Mundi 7000), Ivan III realigned the beginning of the year to September 1st, Anno Mundi in 7000 lasted only six months so that Russia, from March 1 to August 31, 1492.
During the Middle Ages in regions of Western Europe affiliated to the Roman Catholic Church , schedules continued to display 12 columns in the months from January to December, starting on 1 January. However, the Most of these countries began the numbering of the year to an important religious holiday, as in December 25 (Nativity of Jesus ) at March 25 ( incarnation of Jesus), even as Easter in France.
the ninth century, March 25 was used as the beginning of a new year in southern Europe. This practice spread to Europe from the eleventh century and England in the late twelfth century. For example, British parliamentary records recorded the execution of Charles I 30 January 1648 Even if the date would correspond to what would now be considered on January 30 1649 .
Most countries of Western Europe moved the New Year on January 1 prior to adoption of the Gregorian calendar (even before its creation in 1582 ), mainly during the sixteenth century. The following list gives some examples:
1522: Venice
1529: Sweden
1544 : Holy Roman Empire
1556 : Spain, Portugal
1559 : Prussia, Denmark
1564: France
1576 : Netherlands South
1579: Lorraine
1583 : Batavian Republic
1600 : Scotland
1700: Russia
1721: Tuscany
1752: England
Intercalation
Principle:
The Julian calendar includes the addition of a leap day every four years to obtain an average year of 365.25, close to the value of tropical year of 365.2422 . However, this system adds too many leap years and led to an average shift of the equinoxes about 11 minutes earlier each year, one day in 134 years. It is possible that this problem was known to Caesar the creation of the calendar, but there is not given importance. This discrepancy led eventually to the adoption of the Gregorian reform in 1582.
Position
The exact position of the leap day in the original Julian calendar is not known with certainty. In 238 , Censorinus stated that it was inserted after the Terminals (February 23 ) [1] . It was therefore followed five days of February, that is to say, ad VI, V, IV, III and PRID. Kal. Mart. (These days correspond to 24 to 28 February in common years and 25-29 February in a leap year). All later writers, like Macrobius around 430 [2] , Bede in 725 [3] and computist medieval followed this rule, while as the liturgical calendar of the Roman Catholic church until 1970. The days of
months were numbered consecutively until the late Middle Ages . The leap day was then considered the last day of February, ie the February 29.
Motivation: Before the reform
Julian, the Roman calendar had several rules for intercalations. a common year consisted of 12 months for a total of 355 days. An intercalary month 27 days, the mensis intercalar was sometimes inserted between February and March: it was inserted after the first 23 or 24 days of February, the last five days of February becoming the last five intercalary month. In total, 22 or 23 days were added to form one year interlayer of 377 or 378 days. According to later writers
Censorinus [1] and Macrobius [2] , the cycle of intercalation was ideal in common years of 355 days alternating with intercalary year of 377 or 378 days, alternately. With this system, a Roman year had an average of 366.25 days every four years, an average lag of one day per year relative to the solstice or equinox. Macrobius describes a refinement for a period of eight years every 24 years, including only three years dividers, all of 377 days. This principle allows to average the length of the year at 365.25 days over 24 years, bringing it closer to that of the tropical year . In practice, intercalations did not occur consistently following this system, but were determined by the pontiffs . Historical elements suffèrent they were much less regular that in this ideal scheme, usually every two or three years but sometimes ommises for longer, and occasionally used during two consecutive years.
If it is used properly, this system allowed the Roman year to stay roughly aligned with the tropical year . However, if too many intercalations were omitted, as in the Second Punic War or Roman Civil Wars, the calendar is shifting rapidly. Moreover, intercalations were defined as late enough, an ordinary Roman citizen did not know the official date, especially if he was away from Rome. For these reasons, the last years before the reform strips were subsequently named "years of confusion." During the years when Julius Caesar hold the office of pontifex maximus before the reform, between -63 and -46 only five intercalations were performed instead of eight, and none occurred between -51 and -46.
Reform Julian had therefore intended to permanently correct this problem by creating a schedule that would simply aligned with the sun without human intervention.
Reform julienne and adoption
As Pontifex Maximus , Julius Caesar was responsible for establishing the beginning of each year. Julian reform was introduced at his initiative -46 and went into action in -45 or ab urbe in 709 condita in the Roman calendar . She was chosen after consultation with the astronomer of Alexandria Sosigenes and probably designed to approximate the tropical year known since at least Hipparchus.
The first stage of reform was the realignment of the early roman year tropic. Absent because of intercalation, the Roman calendar had accumulated 90 days late. -46 The year was therefore 445 days. This year had already been extended from 355 to 378 days by inserting an intercalary month scheduled in February. When Caesar decreed the reform, are likely to return after the African campaign in late Quintilis (July), he added 67 more days by inserting two extraordinary intercalary months between November and December. Cicero appoints intercalar those months prior and posterior intercalar in a letter written at that time, their individual length is unknown, as is the position of nones and ides inside. -45 Year was the first year of operation of the new calendar.
Months Julian were formed by adding ten days to one year pre-Julian Roman town of 355 days, leading to a year of 365 days: two days were added to Januarius (January), sextile (August) and December (December) one in April (April), Junius (June), September (September) and November (November). Month took the lengths they currently have in the Gregorian calendar.
Macrobius claims that these additional days were added immediately after the last day of each month to avoid moving party established [2] . However, since Roman dates after the Ides a month were counted down relatively early in the next month, these extra days had the effect of increasing the initial count of the day just after the Ides. The Romans of the time born after the Ides of such month reacted differently to this change on their anniversary date. Marc Antoine kept it on the 14th day of Januarius, which brought him over to ad XVII Kal. Feb. to ad XIX Kal. Feb., A date that did not exist before. Livia conservation in ad III Kal. Feb., Which shifted from the 28th to the 30th day of Januarius, a day that there did not exist before. Augustus kept his 23rd day of September, but both dates, the former ad VIII Kal. Oct and the new ad IX Kal. Oct., were celebrated in some places. Former
intercalar, intercalary month, was abolished. The new leap day was appointed ante diem bis Sextum Martias Kalenda, usually abbreviated ad VI Kal aa. Mart. ; Year which contained, bissextus annus.
Fixed Augustus
Although Julian intercalation is simpler than the Roman calendar before it was apparently not applied at the beginning. The pundits - the group of priests responsible for maintaining the calendar in Roman society and responsible for implementing the new schedule - apparently not understood the algorithm and added a leap day every three years instead of every four. Augustus corrected the problem after 36 years by jumping several leap days to realign the year, then applying the correct frequency. The following
leap years of this period is given explicitly by any ancient source, even if the existence of a triennial cycle is confirmed by an inscription dating from -9 -8 or . The chronologist Joseph Scaliger established in 1583 the Augustan reform was instituted in -8 and deduced that leap years were -42, -39 , -36, -33 , -30, -27 , -24, -21 , -18, -15 , -12, -9 , 8, 12 , etc.. This proposal is always accepted. It has sometimes been suggested that the first year of Julian reform, -45, was also a leap year.
Other solutions have been proposed. In 1614, Kepler hypothesized that the sequence was correct -43, -40 , -37, -34 , -31, -28 , -25, -22, -19 , -16, -13 , -10, 8, 12, etc.. In 1883, the German chronologist Matzat proposed -44, -41 , -38, -35 , -32, -29 , -26 , -23 , -20, -17 , -14, -11 , 4, 8, 12, etc.. Based on a passage in Dio Cassius mentioning one day interlayer -41 supposedly "contrary to the rule [of Caesar]." In the 1960s, Radke argued the reform was instituted when Augustus became pontifex maximus in -12, suggesting the following -45, -42, -39, -36, -33, -30, -27, -24 , -21, -18, -15, -12, 4, 8, 12, etc.. In all cases, the Roman calendar was again aligned with the Julian calendar from 26 February 4, with the solution Radke, from February 26 -1.
In 1999 was discovered a Egyptian papyrus giving an ephemeris of the year -24 Roman and Egyptian dates, suggesting the sequence -44, -41, -38, -35, -32, -29, -26, -23, -20, -17, -14, -11, -8, 4, 8, 12, etc., close to that proposed by Matzat.
Subsequent Changes Due to the significant contribution of Julius Caesar and Augustus in the calendar, was renamed Julius in Quintilis and sextilis -44, -8 in augustus. Quintilis was renamed in honor of Caesar because it was the month of birth. According to a senatus consults quoted by Macrobius , sextilis was renamed in honor of Augustus because many events in his rise to power occurred that month.
Other months were renamed by other emperors, but no change seems to have survived their death. Caligula renamed September as Germanicus . Nero renamed Aprilis in neroneus, maius in Claudius and Junius in germanicus. Domitian renamed September as Germanicus and October in domitianus. September was also renamed as Antoninus (in honor of Antoninus Pius ) and Tacitus (Marcus Claudius Tacitus for ) in november Faustina ( Faustina Ancient ) and Romanus. Dresser renamed all twelve months by their names and designations: amazonius, Invictus, Felix, Pius, Lucius, Aelius, Aurelius, Commodus, Augustus, herculeus, Romanus and exsuperatorius.
Charlemagne also renamed the month Old High German, but this operation was more lasting than the Roman emperors. These names were used until the fifteenth century in Germany and the Netherlands, and until the eighteenth century with some modifications. From January to December: Wintarmanoth, Hornung, Lentzinmanoth, Ostarmanoth, Wonnemanoth, Brachmanoth, Heuvimanoth, Aranmanoth, Witumanoth, Windumemanoth, and Herbistmanoth Heilagmanoth.
Counting the Ides and Kalends, which included a week eight days or nundines , was replaced by the week of seven days around the third century. Constantine introduced in the 312 Sunday as a holiday this week .
Gregorian Reform and obsolescence:
articles: Gregorian calendar and the Gregorian calendar Passage .
The Julian calendar was in common use Europe and North Africa since the time of the Roman Empire until 1582, when Pope Gregory XIII promulgated the Gregorian calendar . This reform was needed because of excess Julian leap days of the system compared to the astronomical seasons. On average, solstices and equinoxes advance of 11 minutes per year against the Julian year. Hipparchus and perhaps Sosigenes had already recognized this problem, but it was obviously not considered important at the time of the reform julienne. However, the Julian calendar shifts a day in 134 years. In 1582, he was shifted ten days compared to astronomical phenomena, a troublesome complication in calculating the date of Easter , which is fundamental in the Christian liturgical calendar and must occur after the vernal equinox .
The Gregorian calendar was quickly adopted by the predominantly Catholic countries (Spain, France, Poland, Portugal, most of Italy, etc.). In France, for example, Henry III was followed Sunday, December 9, 1582 by Monday, December 20, 1582. Protestant countries followed later and again after the Orthodox countries. In the British Empire , 2 September 1752 was followed on 14 September 1752. Between 1700 and 1712, the Sweden used a modified Julian calendar , and adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1753. The Russia used the Julian calendar until 1917, after the revolution and Greece until 1923. Both calendars continued to diverge during this period: in 1700 the difference increased to 11 days to 12 in 1800 and 13 in 1900, value it held until 2100.
If all Orthodox countries (most in Eastern Europe and South-East) adopted the Gregorian calendar until 1927, this is not the case with their national churches. In May 1923, a synod in Istanbul proposed a revised Julian calendar, consisting of a solar part identical to the Gregorian calendar (and remained so until 2800) and a lunar part calculating the date of Easter by astronomical observation Jerusalem. All Orthodox churches refused the lunar part, almost all Orthodox churches continue to celebrate Easter today follows the Julian calendar (the Finnish Orthodox Church uses the Gregorian calendar). Part
Solar Revised Julian calendar was not accepted by some Orthodox churches, in the hope of a better dialogue with the Western Church: The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople , the patriarchs of Alexandria and Antioch, the Orthodox Churches of Greece , Cyprus, Romania , Poland, Bulgaria (in 1963) and America (some parishes of the latter still have the right to use the Julian calendar ). The Orthodox churches of Jerusalem , Russia, Macedonia , Serbia , Georgia and Ukraine still use the Julian calendar (as well as some churches schismatics old-calendar). They celebrate the Nativity for example December 25 Julian, ie January 7 Gregorian until 2100. Some western parishes of the Russian Orthodox Church celebrate the Nativity Dec. 25 Georgia, as well as those of the Bulgarian Orthodox Diocese America before and after the transfer in 1976 of the diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church outside borders to Church American Orthodox .
Current use:
Apart from some Orthodox churches, the Julian calendar is still used in North Africa, Berbers in . The Berber calendar is used for agricultural purposes. The first day of the year is currently 14 January in the Gregorian calendar.
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